The Quasi-Shiite Mu'tazilites in the Age of Mihnah and Islamic Inquisition

Document Type : Research Paper

Author

Associate professor, Faculty of Law & Political Science, University of Tehran, Iran.

Abstract

Introduction
The Muʿtazilite movement, renowned for its rationalist theology, was not completely subsumed by the oppressive framework of the Mihna (the Abbasid inquisition). Evidence from history indicates that some Muʿtazilites preserved their intellectual independence, engaging in rational discourse not solely for political gain but as a genuine philosophical pursuit. Among these were the Muʿtazilat al-Mutashayyiʿa (Muʿtazilites with Shiʿi leanings), who distanced themselves from the extremism of their contemporaries and adopted a more balanced theological stance.
The most prominent figure in this group was Fakhr al-Dīn Abū Ḥāmid ʿAbd al-Ḥamīd ibn Abī al-Ḥadīd. He was a distinguished scholar, poet, historian, Ashʿarī jurist, and Muʿtazilī theologian, best known for his commentary on Nahj al-Balāgha. His monumental work was shaped by his close intellectual ties with the Shiʿi vizier Muʾayyad al-Dīn Ibn al-ʿAlqamī, a key figure in the court of the last Abbasid caliph, al-Mustaʿṣim, shortly before the Mongol invasion of Baghdad in 656 AH.
Ibn Abī al-Ḥadīd’s interpretation of Islam was distinctive, transcending sectarian power struggles. Although a Shāfiʿī in jurisprudence and a Muʿtazilī in theology, his views positioned him between Sunni and Shiʿi thought. This placed him as a precursor to the Sunnī-Mutashayyiʿa—Sunni scholars with Shiʿi inclinations—who later played a role in Iran’s transition to Shiʿism during the pre-Safavid period. He emphasized the superiority of ʿAlī ibn Abī Ṭālib over other caliphs—a stance shared by earlier Muʿtazilī scholars such as Qāḍī ʿAbd al-Jabbār, Abū Hāshim al-Jubbāʾī, and his father, Abū ʿAlī al-Jubbāʾī.
Another influential figure was Ṣāḥib ibn ʿAbbād (326–385 AH), a Shiʿi vizier of the Buyid court who openly supported Muʿtazilism, citing earlier Muʿtazilī scholars as his intellectual antecedents. Likewise, the Nawbakhtī family maintaining doctrinal independence exhibited theological affinities with the Muʿtazila.
Under Abbasid rule, Shiʿism’s minority status fostered rationalist approaches to theology, leading to considerable intellectual convergence with Muʿtazilism—particularly in rejecting extremism and advocating intermediate positions, such as the doctrinal stance on sinners. This overlap often prompted accusations that Shiʿi theology borrowed heavily from Muʿtazilī thought. In response, scholars like al-Shaykh al-Mufīd sought to delineate clear doctrinal differences.
Prominent figures such as Ibn al-Rāwandī, Ibn Qibba al-Rāzī, and Ibn Fūsanjas transitioned from Muʿtazilism to Shiʿism, further bridging the two traditions. The rationalist environment of Rayy, under Buyid dominance, became a notable hub of Muʿtazilī-Shiʿi synthesis, influenced by scholars like Qāḍī ʿAbd al-Jabbār and Ṣāḥib ibn ʿAbbād.
By subsequent centuries, Muʿtazilism increasingly merged with Shiʿism, especially Zaydī Shiʿism, exemplified by scholars such as Aḥmad ibn Yaḥyā al-Murtaḍā (d. 840 AH), author of Ṭabaqāt al-Muʿtazila. While some Muʿtazilites, like Ibn al-Rāwandī, drifted into skepticism, most were absorbed into Shiʿi thought.
The Muʿtazilat al-Mutashayyiʿa embodied a spirit of intellectual moderation, grounded in the doctrine of al-manzila bayn al-manzilatayn (the intermediate position). Their legacy lies in fostering a rationalist, politically balanced Shiʿism—distinct from both Umayyad determinism and the extremism of the Abbasid Mihna. Under the Buyids, their influence helped promote policies of tolerance and served as a bridge across theological and political divides. Ultimately, Muʿtazilī rationalism enriched Shiʿi thought, culminating in a synthesis that persisted beyond the Mongol conquests.

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References
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POLITICAL QUARTERLY
Volume 55, Issue 3 - Serial Number 3
September 2025
Pages 754-733

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  • Receive Date: 25 November 2024
  • Revise Date: 16 July 2025
  • Accept Date: 21 July 2025

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